The proposals which began to emerge from the various bodies of the European Union (although opposition is being seen in countries of Central and Eastern Europe, within the Union, as to the financing of measures), are in some cases more ambitious than those set out in the Green Package, the so-called "triple 20": 20% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, 20% reduction in trend-based energy consumption through energy efficiency and 20% of final energy needs in the Union being met by means of renewable energy sources by the year 2020. It should be remembered that this agreement was formally reached in mid-December 2008 by the Heads of State and Government of the EU.

This is the first time that the EU has explicitly set a target for cuts in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, an effort which the EU argues should also be the target for the other industrialised countries.

A reduction of 20% over the period 2013 to 2020 (taking the 2005 figures as the benchmark) in trend-based energy consumption (through increases in efficiency in the various sectors of consumption and links in the energy chain) would now prove easier and cheaper. An analysis performed by the Commission in November indicates that in order to shift upwards from 20% to 30% increases in energy efficiency the cost would represent only between 0.13% and 0.17% of the GDP of the 27 European Union countries.

A lack of agreement between the European Union and the leading world energy consumers, the USA and China, as to specific commitments was a constant throughout 2009, serving to hamper negotiations.

Factors such as the methodology for calculating carbon reduction targets, the submission of a bill before the US Senate prior to the Copenhagen summit and the funding for programmes in developing countries all made it difficult to reach agreements prior to the Summit.

Neither the Bangkok Summit (October) nor the Barcelona Climate Summit (November, the last preparatory meeting with the aim of establishing points of agreement for presentation in Copenhagen, something which was not achieved), nor the attempts of the Commission and some of the EU-27 governments were apparently able to plot a course for agreement which would achieve a positive outcome in Denmark.

On 25 November US government sources announced that President Obama would be travelling to Copenhagen, with a proposal for a 17% cut in emissions by 2020, taking the 2005 levels as the benchmark.

One day later the Chinese government announced that its target and commitment was for a reduction of between 40% and 45% in CO² emissions per unit of GDP, carbon intensity, between 2005 and 2020. Although this does not represent a reduction in absolute terms, it does (according to the IEA) mean that 25% of total global CO² would not be emitted, in order to limit global warming.

It is also the case that for the first time within the context of the United Nations reference has been made to the maximum threshold for the increase in temperature which should guide the action of governments. This action must be reviewed in 2015 in accordance with the scientific advances to be set out in the 5th Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

One further positive aspect was the identification for the first time of an obligation to set specific emissions reduction targets for developed countries, including those which did not sign up to Kyoto. In summary, the agreement fell short of expectations, but does represent a group of countries responsible for more than 80% of worldwide emissions.

China indicated that the absolute priority of its government is economic development and the elimination of poverty, and that work to ensure that temperatures do not rise by more than two degrees, as the scientists are calling for, is a long-term goal.

It would seem reasonable to assume that the economic crisis will had a negative impact on the aim of achieving binding agreements which the European Commission perhaps presented in too ambitious a form. According to at least one Head of State of an EU country, it was not a perfect agreement, but was the best which could be achieved.

We must await developments in 2010 in order to see whether the world proves capable of achieving the objective of establishing a binding agreement.

In presenting the study, the UNPD's Director of Development Policy stressed that the universalisation of access to electricity and modern sources of energy must form part of a future global agreement to combat climate change.

The ministerial meeting of the IEA held in Paris in October ended with agreement among the 28 member countries to reduce by at least one half global emissions of carbon dioxide worldwide by 2050. In order to achieve this goal, developed countries would be required to make cuts of around 80%.

Within this context, various platforms last year again referred to the key role which natural gas could play as a bridge energy between the current situation and the long-term goal. Gas produces the lowest level of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy of all hydrocarbons, while sufficient commercially viable resources are in place to meet growing demands.

In late October the European Commission and the leaders of 22 countries explored the best options for speeding up the commercialisation of carbon capture and storage (Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum, CSLF). This is a field where considerable progress has been made over recent years, but where the best applicable technology has yet to be defined.

The Commission gave approval in July for the European Energy Programme for recovery, one section of which serves to fund pilot schemes on a commercial level, such as those mentioned above. These also include an Endesa plant in Compostilla. The programme itself forms part of another, more ambitious plan. In early May the European Parliament gave the go-ahead for an investment of €3.98 billion in gas and electricity infrastructure, marine wind farms and CO² capture and storage initiatives. The gas interconnection between Spain and France via Larrau will receive €45 M from European coffers.

The Norwegian plant will be operational by 2011. Its aim is to capture 100,000 Tm of CO² per year from the burning of coal and natural gas at power plants, using commercially viable technology. One further parallel project is the stable geological storage of carbon, which is already taking place at two plants in the country.

The CO² cleaning technology at the German plant involves a liquid made up of organic substances which absorb the carbon dioxide from the combustion gas before it is expelled by the power plant into the atmosphere. The dioxide is then transported to storage sites within geological structures. The Scottish plant is located alongside a conventional power station in Longannet. It expects to process 1000 m3 of gas emissions per hour.

During 2009 the prices of CO² (provided by the European Climate Exchange) ranged from 10 to 15 euros per tonne, well below the level of over €25/Tm seen in mid-2008. The negative correlation between the price of crude and the price of CO² emissions rights could be seen in short-term movements.

The Official Journal of the European Union (OJEU) published on 5 May Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and repealing Directive 2001/77/EEC and 2003/30/EC.

This Directive establishes a common framework for the promotion of renewable energy sources, sets mandatory national renewables quota targets for final energy consumption and the quota of renewable energy sources used in transport. It also lays down regulations on joint projects by Member States and guarantees of origin and access for electrical energy from renewable sources, and sets sustainability criteria for biofuels, among other objectives.

The overall aim is clear: to reduce greenhouse gas emissions within the EU and to reduce its dependency on energy imports, increasing energy efficiency. This path had already been plotted by the Energy-Climate Programme passed by the European Council in March 2007, which was translated into the Third Package of measures and the Gas and Electricity Directives.

The Directive places a particular emphasis on setting targets for the transport sector. For example, a level of 10% of energy used in the sector to be drawn from renewable sources in all Member States.

In late 2009 the Commission was working on a plan to promote renewable energy sources which would (including private investments in the field) have an available budget of 50 billion euros.